Impact of interpersonal conflict on university students’ mindset

Interpersonal conflict depends on us, but it is entirely our responsibility and decision to better our relations among ourselves and others”

ABSTRACT

In this research, the impact of interpersonal conflict on the higher institution (university) students’ academic performance has been discussed in depth and how frequently does interpersonal conflict occur in every location (such as Businesses, firms, organizations and in particular universities). Though, the ways of managing, adjusting such “conflict” can differ significantly from one organization to the next. The main aim of this research is to access “management styles of conflict” and “interpersonal conflicts” among students at the European University of Lefke, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus”. In addition to “the quality scope of the interpersonal relationships role in students’ academic motivation, achievement as well as engagement“. However, some might argue that current issues, motivational achievement theory, including the practices of education can be explained in “relational terms”. Influential theory, attribution theory, expectancy-value, including self-worth motivation theory, is revised and reviewed in the contextual function of significant others in the youth individual’s academic lives(in particular students of higher institution). Further more, this research encourages and encompasses student-level action(universal programs like “work and travel to various nations abroad”, intervention, extracurricular activities  for instance language club, writing club, cooperative learning as well as mentoring), lecturer- and classroom action(connective instruction, classroom composition “brainstorming session, teamwork activities among the classmates”. Mixed-methods covered of qualitative (majority composed) and quantitative (extremely minor composed) processes was implemented for the research. A structured questionnaire/ survey was undertaken and collected within the European University of Lefke, responses were gathered primarily from the international students. The sample size in this study is 80.

Keywords:  Impact of interpersonal conflict on higher institution students’ academic performance, the value of interpersonal relationship role, conflict management, motivation, student behaviour, lecturer development, student development, European University of Lefke, Turkish Republic Of Northern Cyprus.

INTRODUCTION

The word “conflict” has been used, described and employed in various forms such as different levels of reflection (student’s feelings, motive towards the university environment or a newly hired employee adjusting to the workforce, firm).

Within the phenomenon of conflict, countless effort has been poured extensively to evaluate the “resolution and management of conflicts” with the aim of determining a number of managerial styles of conflict interpersonal management of conflict also known as “conflict management styles interpersonal conflict management”, which refers to the “expectation role to behavioral issues”. In addition, according to (Rahim and Bonoma,1979) stated that “conflict interpersonal management may be directed, guided by differed responses of behaviors”. The rise of conflicts in particular “interpersonal conflict” has captured multiple attentions across many occasions such as within the learning institution (European University of Lefke) “conflict between the lecturer and the student” and so on. However, as per (Blake and Mouton,1964) classified that “styles or modes of management of conflict are spread into five kinds: problem solving (involving the student by solving a particular practical question or having them to answer a life puzzling question) , smoothing (creating a connection between the lecturer and the student by casual conversation), compromising ( better understanding between the lecturer and the student and arriving at a positive conclusion), forcing and withdrawing( lack of communication). On the other hand, (Rahim and Bonoma,1979) mentioned that “the category of styles are divided into two dimensions, self-concern, and others’ concern. Self-concern (or concern for self) describes the extent to which a person tries to satisfy his or her own concerns for instance selfishness, greediness. Whereas others’ concern refers to the degree to which a person tries to satisfy the concerns or meet the demands, needs of others. For examples teachers to their students, parents to their children etc. Interpersonal conflicts often occurs everywhere and at any period of the day whether it is in university, firms etc. Since it as widespread of “social phenomenon” like gossips, scenarios between individuals in public, students, teachers and many more. Its illustrations can differ significantly as the main root cause of “conflict” can expand widely. According to the researchers’ specialists in the fields of management agree that “conflicts are an essential part in the lives of students, teachers as well as performance of the firm and their study is just as important”. Basically, this issue has brought up the question on various conversations among students as well as among lecturers within the EUL(European University of Lefke).  As a result, the fundamental question to be answered by this study is as follows:

“How does the impact of interpersonal conflict on university student’s mindset (Case of EUL)”. The findings of this study would bring positive awareness to the people engaged in the workforce, studying in a University or even a teacher on dealing, handling conflict with students from different nations, races in an adjustable manner. As one of the research states that” the value of being inclined (disposed) to the fact of managing conflict cooperatively results in long-term health as well as psychological development”. (Tjosvold, Huang, Johnson, & Johnson, 2006)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature Review is divided into two models

(a) Psychological approach
(b) Conflict management

(a) Psychological approach:

According to (e.g., Creasey et al., 1997; Culp, Hubbs-Tait, Culp,&Starost, 2000; Field, Diego, & Sanders, 2002; Marjoribanks, 1996; Martin, Marsh, McInerney, Green, & Dowson, 2007; Pianta, Nimetz, & Bennett, 1997;Robinson, 1995) stated “the literature has consistently been recording the substantial role, that relationships(interpersonal) play in the student’s school success. Followed and guided by the fundamental description of relationship as “a connectedness state between oneself and other people, such as “connection of emotions” (Webster’s Online Dictionary, 2017). First and foremost, connectedness/relatedness deals with “explanatory construct” through which varied motivational theories of achievement can be merged. Secondly, it provides a distinctive set of understanding as well as view of behavioral adapts in the lecture hall and to treat the issues of motivational achievement in the classroom that are similarly related. Similarly, this study encourages and encompasses student-level action (universal programs like “work and travel to various nations abroad”, intervention, extracurricular activities for instance language club, writing club, cooperative learning as well as mentoring), lecturer- and classroom action (connective instruction, classroom composition “brainstorming session, teamwork activities among the classmates”. As noted and described by (e.g. Dweck& Leggett, 1988; Schunk, 1991) that their motivational theories of relatedness breaks by large within “social cognitive domain applying and using social-cognitive terminologies”. Likewise, this brings down into six considerable theoretical perspectives (self-efficacy, self-worth/self-esteem, self-determination, goal theory, expectancy-value, attribution).  Attribution theory refers to the causes or instances in which people give credit to events been effected on the way they cognitively, behaviorally, so as effectively respond on upcoming future situations (Schell, Bruning, & Colvin, 1995; Weiner, 1986, 1994). Expectancy-value theory is viewed as the motivation to accomplish success as a “product of the individual’s assumed success probability” including the value incentive of that success (Atinkson, 1957). Goal theory concentrates on the student’s objective for their actions as well as attaching themselves to achievement occasions (Ames, 1992; Barker, Dowson, & McInerney, 2002; Dweck, 1992; Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993).  Self-determination theory is some of the most essential in the relatedness recognition as the main motivational ingredient. It also suggests that in order for one to work at a level of optimism while being motivated, a set of psychological needs must be acknowledged and supported (Deci & Ryan, 2000; La Guardia & Ryan, 2002; Reeve, Deci, & Ryan, 2004). Needs may include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Self-efficacy refers to the central relevancy to individuals’ belief in their ability to willingly, successfully carry out the required given tasks and the impact outcome, this so-called “self-belief has on achievement and motivation (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Schell et al., 1995; Schunk & Miller, 2002). As described by (Covington,

1992, 1998, 2002) self-worth/self-esteem motivation theory defines the processes as well as the bases included in, enhancement of one’s self-worth or protection. Based on this theory, in addition, students’ self-worth is largely influenced through their capability to perform competitively and academically (Convington, 2002; Robinson, 1995).

b) Conflict management: 

when it comes to managerial conflict, it helps to get things organized and implemented, including the uplifting of behavioral citizenship and performance of the team (Alper, Tjosvold, & Law, 2000; Tjosvold, Poon et al., 2005). Among other instances, when workers of the company discuss their insights constructively, intelligently and openly, it leads to cost reduction and quality improvement (Tjosvold, 1998; Tjosvold & MacPherson, 1996), making an effective development (Tjosvold, 1990a), including the extensive usage of latest advantageous technologies(Tjosvold, Meredith, & Wong, 1998).  Management of conflict, in addition, encourages learning as an “exponents” start to skepticize the ability of their present ideas as well as findings to understand perceptions which might be more sufficient (Johnson, Johnson,& Tjosvold,2006; Tjosvold, Sun, & Wan, 2005). Students who appeared to disagree with their fellow mates ended up reading, researching from the internet, books from the library and have also showed “better and greater” understanding of the ongoing problems as opposed to those(students) who didn’t disagree with one another. According to this research, it demonstrates that “conflict of interpersonal” is correlated to stress, self-esteem/self-worth, mental health factors including anxiety through the decent type of conflict can get rid of all sorts of pressure. Group work(teams) that are able to discipline, manage conflicts easily, cooperatively and effectively are also capable of handling on their trials, experiences by reflecting upon them for the purpose of improving their progress (Tjosvold, Hui, & Yu, 2003).  More importantly, conflict has a significant effect for getting to understand and acknowledge performance required functions as well as the phenomena of the central firm. For instance, a study on “management of conflict” has upgraded people’s understandings towards the “effective quality of leadership”. Couple of studies have indicated that leaders can be successful in establishing a qualitative relationship (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). As a result, workers and leaders cannot necessarily permit stress and frustrations to explode yet instead they are keen on managing their misunderstandings, conflicts to elevate and develop a meaningful relationships (Chen & Tjosvold, 2007; Chen, Tjosvold, & Su, 2005; Tjosvold, Poon, & Yu, 2005), which is simply the reason why valued relationships are beneficial in the sense that it shines and builds up a conflict that is constructive, dedicative, as well as positive which leads to the involvement and performance of the employee (Tjosvold, Hui, & Law, 1998). 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Model

This study aim to satisfy its objectives through the responses obtained from the given questionnaires. Qualitative research refers to the concepts, definitions, symbols, meanings and the explanation of things. Bogdan(1972) specified that “the study of qualitative attempts to leave its mark theoretically and conceptually on the field of social science” and its notions(quality) is important in the face of natural things Dabbs(1982, p.32). For example, symbolic interaction is basically an umbrella through which various related orientation theories may be added and placed like quotations, newspapers, diaries, interviews. Thus, this study follows a qualitative method.

Figure of the Research model

H1: There is an impact of interpersonal conflict on student’s mindset

Research Design

In order to set a good research, firstly it is important to recognize the impact of interpersonal conflict on students’ mindset are categorized in two approaches: psychological approach and conflict management approach. Secondly, the elements affecting the academic students’ mindset has been acknowledged i.e. lack of encouragement, relationship bond (between the students and the lecturers). Thirdly, a questionnaire has been illustrated and handed to the EUL students, feedbacks which were received will decide upon the betterment of their relationships, emotions, motivations to get the tasks done etc. Finally, responses were collected, analyzed and the result was found. “Likert”5- point was applied and used as an instrument for measuring questionnaires.

1=strongly agree (5pts) 2=agree (4pts) 3=undecided (3pts) 4=disagree (2pts) 5=strongly disagree (1pt)

Data Type and Method of Collection 

As specified earlier, there was only one research question to be answered in this study. In order to respond to this question, this study has benefitted significantly from primary including secondary resources. The classification of these resources (primary and secondary) were based on the question listed as follows:

• “How does the interpersonal conflict have an impact on university student’s mindset (Case of EUL)”

 Sampling

The total number of international students in the European University of Lefke is 2500 for the academic year 2018-19. As the target population was known, the following formula was used to determine the sample size (Kalıpsız, 1981; Akten, 2003, p. 119):

n= sample size

Z= trust coefficient

Q= 1−P

N= size of population (2500)

P= Probability of measured feature to be in population (determined as 95% in the study)

The study was conducted in November 2018 and 80 valid questionnaire were collected. This number is sufficient to achieve the minimum count for sampling.

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

 Introduction

In this study work, the hypothesis will examine by explaining the independent variable (interpersonal conflict) and dependent variable (student’s mindset) as well as some of the factors in which one affects the other. There is an impact of interpersonal conflict on student’s mindset. All of the data have been gathered from the questionnaires, were presented and analyzed. The questionnaire which have taken place consisted of multiple questions of common demographics like gender, age, nationality, level of education. Moreover, it was designed to meet up with the information on the literature review accordingly, including the relationship between the lecturers and the students, certain conflicts which may occur between the parties, student’s development/lecturer’s teaching development.

Data Analysis and presentation

Questionnaire data has been analyzed using the “SPSS software package” to reach a positive outcome for the research work, two types of analysis have been applied. A frequency test was conducted on section “A” questions which were referring to the demographical inquires. Part “B”, however, demonstrated the five-point Likert scale to gather information on the basis of questionnaire evaluation [1=strongly agree (5pts) 2=agree (4pts) 3=undecided (3pts) 4=disagree (2pts) 5=strongly disagree (1pt)].On the other hand, another types of analysis (sample t-test to get the reliable results, while the reliability test “Cronbach’s alpha” was also tested to assess the questionnaire’s reliability.

Frequency Test

The frequency test for section “A” can be found on table 1 to 11. Each table illustrates results for various questions under section “A”.

Table 1: Frequency test results for gender

Total percentage for the males participated were 66.3%, while the females’ were just 33.8 %.

Table 2: Frequency test results for age

The overall age average was 22 years of age which amounted to 17.5%, followed by 23 years that was 11.3% and so on.

Table3: Frequency test results for education

In the above table, it shows undergraduate students had the highest number of respondents by 88.8% followed by masters’.

Table 4: Question no.1 I think lecturers should involve the students by placing regular reminders about the unexpected quizzes or during sessions of brainstorm (getting students involved).

Table 5: Question no.2 I think that close interaction between the lecturers and the students helps in:

• Better understanding
• Shifting from the “dysfunctional conflict to the functional conflict”

Table6: Question no.3 I think most of the conflict which arises between the students and the lecturers are due to:

• Evaluation of the exams ( exams grading)
• Misunderstanding

Table 7: Question no.4 I think that lack of communication between the students and the lecturers often creates conflict among the parties.

Table 8: Question no.5 I think that sometimes “conflict is lifted with the lecturer’s teaching methods or way of teaching style”.

Table 9: Question no.6 Addressing the students in public(outside of the classroom) by casual interaction, giving out motivational wording

Table 10: Question no.7 Concentrate on the motive, feeling, and emotion of the students.

Table 11: Question no.8 Involving the student by:

• Solving a particular practical question, practice problem or life puzzling situation
• Elaborating the conversation based on a case study.

Reliability Test (Cronbach’s Alpha)

In this part “B”, a reliability test of Cronbach’s Alpha was carried out to identify the reliability (internally) of the study. Table 12 demonstrates the test’s result. Moreover, (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011) stated that “Cronbach’s Alpha utilizes the following results to decide upon the internal reliability of the research work”: 

α ≥ 0.9 Excellent

0.9 ≥ α ≥ 0.8 Good

0.8 ≥ α ≥ 0.7 Acceptable

0.7 ≥ α ≥ 0.6 Questionable

0.6 ≥ α ≥ 0.5 Poor

0.5 ≥ α Unacceptable

Table 12: Reliability Statistics

Based on the above answer which was 0.549, it clearly indicates that the test result is poor.

CONCLUSION

In this study, the collection of data analysis (questionnaire) from respondents clearly demonstrated the significance of the interpersonal conflict between the students and lecturers within the University. With the help of “frequency analysis”, the test results show that most of the people appeared to agree on most of the questions as opposed to question number 3 which was “undecided” and the number of feedbacks received from the overall survey consisted of 53 males which were considerably higher in comparison to females (27 responses). Furthermore, the findings of this research was aimed to bring positive awareness, understanding of one’s viewpoint and how to handle conflicts in an suitable behavior which may not cause any harm whether it’s within the company, workforce, or even in an educational institution. Management of interpersonal conflict can heavily contribute for elevating the “student’s psychological health level”, which are the fundamentals of students to understand correctly and deal with interpersonal conflict in an applicable manner. Whatever the type of conflicts that may arise, it needs to be handled with care and compassion by analyzing the nature of conflict (causes of conflicts, listening and verifying both side opinions) with a dialectical view for example counselling and guidance with the aim of maintaining an effective communication between the parties and reaching a positive outcome. By unifying psychological theories and conflict management theories, it helps to get plans organized, decisions being implemented, comprehending various opinions with better understanding and an encouragement to goal attainment and success.

References:

• [1] Richard L. Daft, Raymond A. Nnoitora, Yang Yu and et. Organizational behavior science .M. Beijing: Mechanical Industry Press, 2004, p.236
• [2] XiaoYan Zhou. J. China Education Technology, Vol. (23), 2008, p. 3-4.
• [3] YiChun Zhang, Yun Wan: Organizational Behavior. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, (2006), p.183-184.
• [4] Fumin Fan, Xiang Zhang: Journal of China University of Mining and Technology, Vol.(3), 2003.
• [5] Han Rong Wang, JianFei Long and WangXu Lang: J. Economist. Vol.(2) ,2005.

• [6] Deutsch, M. “Sixty Years of Conflict,” International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 1 (3), 1990, p. 237-263.
• [7] Thomas, K.W. “Conflict and Conflict Management: Reflections and Update,” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 1992b, 265-274.
• Barker, K., Dowson, M., & McInerney, D. M. (2002). Performance approach, performance
• avoidance and depth of information processing: A fresh look at relations
• between students’ academic motivation and cognition. Educational Psychology, 22,
• 571–589.
• Barratt, R. (1998). The future: The shape of middle schooling in Australia. Curriculum
• Perspectives, 18, 53–75.
• Battistich, V., & Hom, A. (1997). The relationship between students’ sense of their
• school as a community and their involvement in problem behaviors. American
• Journal of Public Health, 87, 1997–2001.
• Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal
• attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin,
• 117, 497–529.
• Becker, B. E., & Luthar, S. S. (2002). Social-emotional factors affecting achievement
• outcomes among disadvantaged students: Closing the achievement gap. Educational
• Psychologist, 37, 197–214.
• Bergum, V. (2003). Relational pedagogy: Embodiment, improvisation, and interdependence.
• Nursing Philosophy, 4, 121–128.
• Berkowitz, B. (1996). Personal and community sustainability. American Journal of
• Community Psychology, 24, 441–460.
• Blum, R. E., Butler, J. A., & Olson, N. L. (1987). Leadership for excellence: Research-based
• training for principals. Educational Leadership, 45, 25–29.
• Bolger, K. E., Patterson, C. J., & Kupersmidt, J. B. (1998). Peer relationships and
• self-esteem among children who have been maltreated. Child Development, 69,
• 1171–1197.
• Borkowski, J., Carr, M., Rellinger, E., & Pressley, M. (1990). Self-regulated cognition:
• Interdependence of meta-cognition, attributions, and self-esteem. In B. F. Jones, &
• L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 53–92).
• Hillsdale: NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Boyd, R., MacNeil, N., & Sullivan, G. (2006). Relational pedagogy: Putting balance
• back into students’ learning. Curriculum Leadership: An Electronic Journal for
• Leaders in Education, 13. Retrieved from http://www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/
• relational_pedagogy:_putting_balance_back_into_stu,13944.html?issueID=10277
• Broh, B. A. (2002). Linking extracurricular programming to academic achievement:
• Who benefits and why? Sociology of Education, 75, 69–91.
• Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). The origins of alienation. Scientific American, 231,
• 53–61.
• Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986, February). Alienation and the four worlds of childhood. Phi
• Delta Kappan, 430–436.
• Brophy, J. (2005). Goal theorists should move on from performance goals. Educational
• Psychologist, 40, 167–176.
• Brown, R., & Evans, W. P. (2002). Extracurricular activity and ethnicity: Creating
• greater school connection among diverse student populations. Urban Education, 37,
• 41–58.
• Burroughs, S. M., & Eby, L. T. (1998). Psychological sense of community: A measurement
• system and explanatory framework. Journal of Community Psychology, 26,
• 509–532.
• Cavanagh, S. L. (2001). The pedagogy of the pastor: The formation of the social studies
• curriculum in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Education, 26, 401–417.
• Martin & Dowson
• 354
• Barker, K., Dowson, M., & McInerney, D. M. (2002). Performance approach, performance
• avoidance and depth of information processing: A fresh look at relations
• between students’ academic motivation and cognition. Educational Psychology, 22,
• 571–589.
• Barratt, R. (1998). The future: The shape of middle schooling in Australia. Curriculum
• Perspectives, 18, 53–75.
• Battistich, V., & Hom, A. (1997). The relationship between students’ sense of their
• school as a community and their involvement in problem behaviors. American
• Journal of Public Health, 87, 1997–2001.
• Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal
• attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin,
• 117, 497–529.
• Becker, B. E., & Luthar, S. S. (2002). Social-emotional factors affecting achievement
• outcomes among disadvantaged students: Closing the achievement gap. Educational
• Psychologist, 37, 197–214.
• Bergum, V. (2003). Relational pedagogy: Embodiment, improvisation, and interdependence.
• Nursing Philosophy, 4, 121–128.
• Berkowitz, B. (1996). Personal and community sustainability. American Journal of
• Community Psychology, 24, 441–460.
• Blum, R. E., Butler, J. A., & Olson, N. L. (1987). Leadership for excellence: Research-based
• training for principals. Educational Leadership, 45, 25–29.
• Bolger, K. E., Patterson, C. J., & Kupersmidt, J. B. (1998). Peer relationships and
• self-esteem among children who have been maltreated. Child Development, 69,
• 1171–1197.
• Borkowski, J., Carr, M., Rellinger, E., & Pressley, M. (1990). Self-regulated cognition:
• Interdependence of meta-cognition, attributions, and self-esteem. In B. F. Jones, &
• L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 53–92).
• Hillsdale: NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Boyd, R., MacNeil, N., & Sullivan, G. (2006). Relational pedagogy: Putting balance
• back into students’ learning. Curriculum Leadership: An Electronic Journal for
• Leaders in Education, 13. Retrieved from http://www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/
• relational_pedagogy:_putting_balance_back_into_stu,13944.html?issueID=10277
• Broh, B. A. (2002). Linking extracurricular programming to academic achievement:
• Who benefits and why? Sociology of Education, 75, 69–91.
• Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). The origins of alienation. Scientific American, 231,
• 53–61.
• Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986, February). Alienation and the four worlds of childhood. Phi
• Delta Kappan, 430–436.
• Brophy, J. (2005). Goal theorists should move on from performance goals. Educational
• Psychologist, 40, 167–176.
• Brown, R., & Evans, W. P. (2002). Extracurricular activity and ethnicity: Creating
• greater school connection among diverse student populations. Urban Education, 37,
• 41–58.
• Burroughs, S. M., & Eby, L. T. (1998). Psychological sense of community: A measurement
• system and explanatory framework. Journal of Community Psychology, 26,
• 509–532.
• Cavanagh, S. L. (2001). The pedagogy of the pastor: The formation of the social studies
• curriculum in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Education, 26, 401–417.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Relationships and Student Motivation and Engagement
• 355
• Ceci, S. J., & Papierno, P. B. (2005). The rhetoric and reality of gap closing: When
• the “have-nots” gain but the “haves” gain even more. American Psychologist, 60,
• 149–160.
• Chavis, D., & Newbrough, J. R. (1986). The meaning of “community” in community
• psychology. Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 335–340.
• Cherubini, G., Zambelli, F., & Boscolo, P. (2002). Student motivation: An experience
• of in-service education as a context for professional development of teachers.
• Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 273–288.
• Collins, G. (1993). Meeting the needs of Aboriginal students. Aboriginal Child at
• School, 21, 3–17.
• Connell. J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A
• motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe
• (Eds.), Self-processes in development: Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology:
• Vol. 29 (pp. 244–254). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Cooper, H., Valentine, J. C., Nye, B., & Lindsay, J. J. (1999). Relationships between
• five after-school activities and academic achievement. Journal of Educational
• Psychology, 91, 369–378.
• Corbett, J. (2001a). Supporting inclusive education: A connective pedagogy. London:
• Routledge-Falmer.
• Corbett, J. (2001b). Teaching approaches which support inclusive education: A connective
• pedagogy. British Journal of Special Education, 28, 55–59.
• Corbett, J., & Norwich, B. (1999). Learners with special educational needs. In
• P. Mortimore (Ed.), Understanding pedagogy and its impact on learning (p. 115-136).
• London: Paul Chapman.
• Covington, M. V. (1992). Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation
• and school reform. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Covington, M. V. (1998). The will to learn: A guide for motivating young people.
• Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Covington, M. V. (2002). Rewards and intrinsic motivation: A needs-based developmental
• perspective. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Academic motivation of adolescents.
• Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
• Cowen, E. (1988). Resilient children, psychological wellness and primary prevention.
• American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 591–607.
• Craven, R. G., Marsh, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (1991). Effects of internally focused
• feedback and attributional feedback on the enhancement of academic self-concept.
• Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 17–26.
• Creasey, G., Ottlinger, K., Devico, K., Murray, T., Harvey, A., & Hesson-McInnis, M.
• (1997). Children’s affective responses, cognitive appraisals, and coping strategies in
• response to the negative affect of parents and peers. Journal of Experimental Child
• Psychology, 67, 39–56.
• Culp, A. M., Hubbs-Tait, L., Culp, R. E., & Starost, H. J. (2000). Maternal parenting
• characteristics and school involvement: Predictors of kindergarten cognitive competence
• among Head Start children. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 15,
• 5–17.
• Cumming, J. (1996). From alienation to engagement: Opportunities for reform in the
• middle years of schooling: Vol. 3. Teacher action. Canberra: Australian Curriculum
• Studies Association.
• Cunningham, E. G., Brandon, C. M., & Frydenberg, E. (1999). Building resilience in
• early adolescence through a universal school-based preventive program. Australian
• Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 9, 15–24.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Martin & Dowson
• 356
• Damon, W. (1983). Social and personality development: Infancy through adolescence.
• New York: Norton.
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The darker and brighter sides of human existence:
• Basic psychological needs as a unifying concept. Psychological Inquiry, 11,
• 319–338.
• Deci, E. L., Schwartz, A. J., Sheinman, L., & Ryan, R. M. (1981). An instrument to
• assess adults’ orientations toward control versus autonomy with children: Reflections
• on intrinsic motivation and perceived competence. Journal of Educational
• Psychology, 73, 642–650.
• De Leon, G. (2000). The therapeutic community: Theory, model and method. New
• York: Springer.
• Dollard, M. (2006). Throwaway workers. InPsych, 28, 8–12.
• Dowson, M., & McInerney, D. M. (2001). Psychological parameters of students’ social
• and work avoidance goals: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Educational
• Psychology, 93, 35–42.
• Dowson, M., & McInerney, D. M. (2003). What do students say about their motivational
• goals? Towards a more complex and dynamic perspective on student motivation.
• Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 91–113.
• Dryfoos, J. G. (1990). Adolescents at risk: Prevalence and prevention. New York:
• Oxford University Press.
• Duda, J. L. (2001). Achievement goal research in sport: Pushing the boundaries and
• clarifying some misunderstandings. In G. C. Roberts (Ed.), Advances in motivation
• in sport and exercise (pp. 129–182). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
• Dweck, C. S. (1992). The study of goals in psychology. Psychological Science, 3,
• 165–167.
• Dweck, C., & Leggett, E. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
• Psychological Review, 95, 256–273.
• Eccles, J. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. Spence (Ed.),
• Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). San Francisco: Freeman.
• Eccles, J. S. (1999). The development of children ages 6 to 14. Future of Children, 9,
• 30–42.
• Eccles, J. S., & Barber, B. L. (1999). Student council, volunteering, basketball, or
• marching band: What kind of extracurricular involvement matters? Journal of
• Adolescent Research, 14, 10–43.
• Edmonds, R. R. (1979). Effective schools for the urban poor. Educational Leadership,
• 37, 15–27.
• Elicker, J., & Fortner-Wood, C. (1995). Adult-child relationships in early childhood
• programs: Research in review. Young Children, 51, 69–78.
• Elliot, A. J. (1997). Integrating the “classic” and “contemporary” approaches to
• achievement motivation: A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement
• motivation. In. M. L Maehr & P. R Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and
• achievement: Vol. 10 (pp. 143–179). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
• Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals.
• Educational Psychologist, 34, 169–189.
• Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2004). The intergenerational transmission of fear of
• failure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 957–971.
• Fabricius, W. V., & Hagen, J. W. (1984). Use of causal attributions about recall performance
• to assess meta-memory and predict strategic memory behavior in young children.
• Developmental Psychology, 20, 975–987.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Relationships and Student Motivation and Engagement
• 357
• Fanshawe, J. P. (1989). Personal characteristics of an effective teacher of adolescent
• Aboriginals. Aboriginal Child at School, 17, 35–48.
• Field, T., Diego, M., & Sanders, C. (2002). Adolescents’ parent and peer relationships.
• Adolescence, 37, 121–130.
• Flink, C., Boggiano, A. K., & Barrett, M. (1990). Controlling teaching strategies:
• Undermining children’s self-determination and performance. Journal of Personality
• and Social Psychology, 59, 916–924.
• Fry, N. (1994). Meeting in the middle: Preparing teachers for working with young
• adolescents. Unicorn, 20, 21–27.
• Fry, G., & Martin, A. J. (1994). Factors contributing to identification and incidence of
• stress during the school practicum as reported by supervising teachers. In T. A.
• Simpson (Ed.), Teacher Educators’ Annual Handbook. Queensland, Australia: QUT
• Press.
• Furrer, C., & Skinner, E. (2003). Sense of relatedness as a factor in children’s academic
• engagement and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 148–162.
• Fyson, S. J. (1999). Developing and applying concepts about community: Reflections
• from the field. Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 347–365.
• Gadow, S. (1999) Relational narrative: The postmodern turn in nursing ethics. Scholarly
• Inquiry for Nursing Practice, 13, 57–70.
• Gaede, S. D. (1985). Belonging: Our need for community in church and family. Grand
• Rapids, MI: Academic Books.
• Glover, S., Burns, J., Butler, H., & Patten, G. (1998). Social environments and the
• emotional wellbeing of young people. Family Matters, 49, 11–16.
• Goodenow, C. (1993a). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students:
• Relationships to motivation and achievement. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13,
• 21–43.
• Goodenow, C. (1993b). The psychological sense of school membership among adolescents:
• Scale development and educational correlates. Psychology in the Schools, 30,
• 79–90.
• Graham, S. (1994). Motivation in African-Americans. Review of Educational Research,
• 64, 55–117.
• Green, J., Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2007). Motivation and engagement in English,
• mathematics and science high school subjects: Towards an understanding of
• multidimensional domain specificity. Learning and Individual Differences, 17,
• 269–279.
• Groome, H., & Hamilton, A. (1995). Meeting the educational needs of Aboriginal
• adolescents. Canberra, Australia: AGPS.
• Groteluschen, A. K., Borkowski, J. G., & Hales, C. (1990). Strategy instruction is often
• insufficient: Addressing the interdependency of executive and attributional processes.
• In T. Scruggs & B. Wong (Eds.), Intervention research in learning disabilities
• (pp. 81–101). New York: Springer-Verlag.
• Gutman, L. M., Sameroff, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). The academic achievement of
• African American students during early adolescence: An examination of multiple
• risk, promotive, and protective factors. American Journal of Community Psychology,
• 30, 401–428.
• Hallinger, P., & Murphy, J. F. (1987). Assessing and developing instructional leadership.
• Educational Leadership, 45, 54–61.
• Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliott, P. R., & Thrash, T. M.
• (2002). Revision of achievement goal theory: Necessary and illuminating. Journal
• of Educational Psychology, 94, 638–645.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Martin & Dowson
• 358
• Hareli, S., & Weiner, B. (2000). Accounts for success as determinants of perceived
• arrogance and modesty. Motivation and Emotion, 24, 215–236.
• Hareli, S., & Weiner, B. (2002). Social emotions and personality inferences: A scaffold
• for a new direction in the study of achievement motivation. Educational Psychologist,
• 37, 183–193.
• Hargreaves, A., Earl, L., & Ryan, J. (1996). Schooling for change: Reinventing education
• for early adolescents. Washington, DC: Falmer Press.
• Hartup, W. W. (1982). Peer relations. In C. B. Kopp & J. B. Krakow (Eds.), The child:
• Development in a social context (pp. 514–575). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
• Hastings, N., & Schwieso, J. (1995). Tasks and tables: The effects of seating arrangements
• on task engagement in primary classrooms. Educational Research, 37,
• 279–291.
• Hernandez, A. E. (1995). Do role models influence self-efficacy and aspirations in Mexican
• American at-risk females? Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 17, 256–263.
• Heyman, G. D., & Dweck, C. S. (1992). Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation:
• Their relation and their role in adaptive motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 16,
• 231–247.
• Hill, J. L. (1996). Psychological sense of community: Suggestions for future research.
• Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 431–438.
• Hill, P. W., & Rowe, K. J. (1996). Multilevel modelling in school effectiveness research.
• School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 7, 1–34.
• Howard, S., & Johnson, B. (2000). What makes the difference? Children and teachers
• talk about resilient outcomes for children “at risk.” Educational Studies, 26,
• 321–337.
• Hunter, I. (1994). Rethinking the school: Subjectivity, bureaucracy and criticism. New
• York: St. Martin’s Press.
• Irwin, J. L. (1996). Developmental tasks of early adolescents: How adult awareness can
• reduce at-risk behavior. Clearing House, March April, 222–225.
• Johnson, D. W., Maruyama, G., Johnson, R., Nelson, D., & Skon, L. (1981). Effects of
• cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on achievement: A
• meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 47–62.
• Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. J. (2002). Should childhood be a journey or a race?
• Response to Harackiewicz et al. (2002). Journal of Educational Psychology, 94,
• 646–648.
• Karasek, R. A., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the
• reconstruction of working life. New York: Basic Books.
• Karcher, M. J., Davis, C., & Powell, B. (2002). The effects of development mentoring
• on connectedness and academic achievement. School Community Journal, 12,
• 35–50.
• Kelly, J. A., & Hansen, D. J. (1987). Social interactions and adjustment. In V. B. Van
• Hasselt & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 131–146).
• New York: Pergamon Press.
• Kontos, S., & Wilcox-Herzog, A. (1997a). Influences on children’s competence in
• early childhood classrooms. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 12, 247–262.
• Kontos, S., & Wilcox-Herzog, A. (1997b). Teachers’ interactions with children: Why
• are they so important? Research in review. Young Children, 52, 4–12.
• Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that’s just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant
• pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34, 159–165.
• La Guardia, J. G., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). What adolescents need: A self-determination
• theory perspective on development within families, school, and society. In F. Pajares
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Relationships and Student Motivation and Engagement
• 359
• & T. Urdan (Eds.), Academic motivation of adolescents: Vol. 2 (pp. 193–219).
• Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
• Lemos, M. S. (1996). Student’s and teacher’s goals in the classroom. Learning and
• Instruction, 6, 151–171.
• Levine, D. U., & Lezotte, L. W. (1990). Unusually effective schools: A review and
• analysis of research and practice. Madison, WI: National Center for Effective
• Schools Research and Development.
• Maehr, M. L., & Midgley, C. (1996). Transforming school cultures. Boulder, CO:
• Westview Press.
• Mahoney, J. L., Schweder, A. E., & Stattin, H. (2001). Structured after-school activities
• as moderator of depressed mood for adolescents with detached relations to their
• parents. Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 69–86.
• Mann, D. (1989). Effective schools as a dropout prevention strategy. NASSP Bulletin
• 73, 518, 77–83.
• Marjoribanks, K. (1996). Family socialization and children’s school outcomes: An
• investigation of a parenting model. Educational Studies, 22, 3–11.
• Marsh, H. W. (1987). The big-fish-little-pond effect on academic self-concept. Journal
• of Educational Psychology, 79, 280–295.
• Marsh, H. W. (1989). Effects of attending single-sex and coeducational high schools
• on achievement, attitudes, behaviors, and sex differences. Journal of Educational
• Psychology, 81, 70–85.
• Marsh, H. W. (1992). Extracurricular activities: Beneficial extension of the traditional
• curriculum or subversion of academic goals? Journal of Educational Psychology,
• 84, 553–562.
• Marsh, H. W., & Hau, K. (2003). Big-Fish—Little-Pond effect on academic self-concept:
• A cross-cultural (26-country) test of the negative effects of academically selective
• schools. American Psychologist, 58, 364–376.
• Marsh, H. W., & Kleitman, S. (2002). Extracurricular school activities: The good, the
• bad, and the nonlinear. Harvard Educational Review, 72, 464–511.
• Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., & Cheng, J. (2008). A multilevel perspective on gender in
• classroom motivation and climate: Potential benefits of male teachers for boys?
• Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 78–95.
• Marsh, H. W., & Rowe, K. J. (1996). The negative effects of school-average ability on
• academic self-concept—an application of multilevel modeling. Australian Journal
• of Education, 40, 65–87.
• Martin, A. J. (2001). The Student Motivation Scale: A tool for measuring and enhancing
• motivation. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 11, 1–20.
• Martin, A. J. (2002a). Improving the educational outcomes of boys. Final report to ACT
• Department of Education, Youth and Family Services, Canberra, Australia. Retrieved
• September 30, 2008, from http://www.det.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/
• 17798/Ed_Outcomes_Boys.pdf
• Martin, A. J. (2002b). Motivation and academic resilience: Developing a model of
• student enhancement. Australian Journal of Education, 46, 34–49.
• Martin, A. J. (2002c). The lethal cocktail: Low self-belief, low control, and high fear
• of failure. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 12, 74–85.
• Martin, A. J. (2003a). Boys and motivation: Contrasts and comparisons with girls’
• approaches to schoolwork. Australian Educational Researcher, 30, 43–65.
• Martin, A. J. (2003b). Enhancing the educational outcomes of boys: Findings from the
• A.C.T. investigation into boys’ education. Youth Studies Australia, 22, 27–36.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Martin & Dowson
• 360
• Martin, A. J. (2003c). The role of significant others in enhancing the educational outcomes
• and aspirations of Indigenous/Aboriginal students. Aboriginal Studies
• Association Journal, 12, 23–26.
• Martin, A. J. (2004). School motivation of boys and girls: Differences of degree, differences
• of kind, or both? Australian Journal of Psychology, 56, 133–146.
• Martin, A.J. (2005). Exploring the effects of a youth enrichment program on academic
• motivation and engagement. Social Psychology of Education, 8, 179-206.
• Martin, A. J. (2006a). A motivational psychology for the education of Indigenous students.
• Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 35, 30–43.
• Martin, A. J. (2006b). Pastoral pedagogy: A great composition comprising the song,
• the singer, and the singing. US Department of Education. (ERIC Document
• Reproduction Service No. ED490483)
• Martin, A. J. (2006c). Personal bests (PBs): A proposed multidimensional model and
• empirical analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 803–825.
• Martin, A. J. (2006d). The relationship between teachers’ perceptions of student motivation
• and engagement and teachers’ enjoyment of and confidence in teaching. Asia-
• Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 34, 73–93.
• Martin, A. J. (2007). Examining a multidimensional model of student motivation and
• engagement using a construct validation approach. British Journal of Educational
• Psychology, 77, 413–440.
• Martin, A. J. (2008a). Enhancing student motivation and engagement: The effects
• of a multidimensional intervention. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33,
• 239–269.
• Martin, A. J. (2008b). Motivation and engagement in music and sport: Testing a multidimensional
• framework in diverse performance settings. Journal of Personality,
• 76, 135–170.
• Martin, A. J. (in press). Age appropriateness and motivation, engagement, and performance
• in high school: Effects of age-within-cohort, grade retention, and delayed
• school entry. Journal of Educational Psychology.
• Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2003). Fear of failure: Friend or foe? Australian
• Psychologist, 38, 31–38.
• Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2005). Motivating boys and motivating girls: Does teacher
• gender really make a difference? Australian Journal of Education, 49, 320–334.
• Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2006). Academic resilience and its psychological and educational
• correlates: A construct validity approach. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 267–282.
• Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2008). Academic buoyancy: Towards an understanding
• of students’ everyday academic resilience. Journal of School Psychology, 46,
• 53–83.
• Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (in press). Workplace and academic buoyancy:
• Psychometric assessment and construct validity amongst school personnel and students.
• Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment.
• Martin, A. J., Marsh, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (2001a). A quadripolar need achievement
• representation of self-handicapping and defensive pessimism. American Educational
• Research Journal, 38, 583–610.
• Martin, A. J., Marsh, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (2001b). Self-handicapping and defensive
• pessimism: Exploring a model of predictors and outcomes from a self-protection
• perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 87–102.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Relationships and Student Motivation and Engagement
• 361
• Martin, A. J. Marsh, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (2003). Self-handicapping and defensive
• pessimism: A model of self-protection from a longitudinal perspective. Contemporary
• Educational Psychology, 28, 1–36.
• Martin, A. J., Marsh, H. W., McInerney, D. M., Green, J., & Dowson, M. (2007).
• Getting along with teachers and parents: The yields of good relationships for students’
• achievement motivation and self-esteem. Australian Journal of Guidance and
• Counselling, 17, 109–125.
• Martin, A. J., Marsh, H. W., Williamson, A., & Debus, R. L. (2003). Self-handicapping,
• defensive pessimism, and goal orientation: A qualitative study of university students.
• Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 617–628.
• Martino, W., & Pallotta-Chiarolli, M. (2003). So what’s a boy: Addressing issues of
• masculinity and schooling. Buckingham, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Marx, A., Fuhrer, U., & Hartig, T. (1999). Effects of classroom seating arrangements
• on children’s question-asking. Learning Environments Research, 2, 249–263.
• Marzano, R. (2003). What works in schools. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
• Maslow, A. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
• Mayer, D. (2006). The changing face of the Australian teaching profession: New generations
• and new ways of working and learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher
• Education, 34, 57–61.
• McAdams, D. P., Hoffman, B. J., Mansfield, E. D., & Day, R. (1996). Themes of
• agency and communion in significant autobiographical scenes. Journal of Personality,
• 64, 339–378.
• McCarthy, M., Pretty, G., & Catano, V. (1990). Psychological sense of community and
• burnout. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 211–216.
• McClelland, D. C. (1965). Toward a theory of motive acquisition. American
• Psychologist, 20, 321–333.
• McCormack, A., Gore, J., & Thomas, K. (2006). Early career teacher professional
• learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 34, 95–113.
• McInerney, D. (2000). Helping kids achieve their best. Sydney, Australia: Allen and
• Unwin.
• McInerney, D. M., Hinkley, J., Dowson, M., & Van Etten, S. (1998). Children’s beliefs
• about success in the classroom: Are there cultural differences? Journal of Educational
• Psychology, 90, 621–629.
• McInerney, D. M., Roche, L., McInerney, V., & Marsh, H. W. (1997). Cultural perspectives
• on school motivation: The relevance and application of goal theory. American
• Educational Research Journal, 34, 207–236.
• McInerney, D. M., & Van Etten, S. (2004). Big theories revisited. Greenwich, CT:
• Information Age.
• McLaughlin, M. W., Irby, M. A., & Langman, J. (1994). Urban sanctuaries:
• Neighborhood organizations and the lives and futures of inner city youth. San
• Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Meece, J. L. (1991). The classroom context and student’s motivational goals. In
• M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement
• (pp. 261–285). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
• Meece, J. L. (1997). Child and adolescent development for educators. New York:
• McGraw-Hill.
• Meyer, D. K., & Turner, J. C. (2002). Discovering emotion in classroom motivation
• research. Educational Psychologist, 37, 107–114.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Martin & Dowson
• 362
• Middleton, M. J., & Midgley, C. (1997). Avoiding the demonstration of lack of
• ability: An unexplored aspect of goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89,
• 710–718.
• Moos, R. H. (2002). The mystery of human context and coping: An unraveling of clues.
• American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 67–88.
• Munns, G. (1998). “They just can’t hack that”: Aboriginal students, their teachers and
• responses to schools and classrooms. In G. Partington (Ed.), Perspectives on
• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander education (pp. 171–187). Katoomba, Australia:
• Social Science Press.
• Nation, M., Crusto, C., Wandersman, A., Kumpfer, K. L., Seybolt, D., Morrisey-Kane,
• E., et al. (2003). What works in prevention: Principles of effective prevention programs.
• American Psychologist, 58, 449–456.
• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2008). Accessed
• September 30, 2008, at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/
• National Institutes of Health. (2008). Accessed September 30, 2008, at http://www.nih.
• gov/
• Nicholls, J. G., Cheung, P. C., Lauer, J., & Patashnick, M. (1989). Individual differences
• in academic motivation: Perceived ability, goals, beliefs, and values. Learning
• and Individual Differences, 1, 63–84.
• Noble, C., & Bradford, W. (2000). Getting it right for boys . . . and girls. London:
• Routledge.
• Office of the Australian Safety and Compensation Council. (2006). Compendium of
• workers’ compensation statistics, Australia, 2002-2003. Canberra: Commonwealth
• of Australia, Department of Employment and Workplace Relations.
• O’Hare, M. (1998). Classroom design for discussion-based teaching. Journal of Policy
• Analysis and Management, 17, 706–720.
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2005). Teachers matter:
• Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. Paris: Author.
• Papaioannou, A., Marsh, H. W., Theodorakis, Y. (2004). A multilevel approach to motivational
• climate in physical education and sport settings: An individual or a group
• level construct. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 26, 90–118.
• Parker, P. D., & Martin, A. J. (in press). Personal capacity building for the human services:
• What is the relative salience of curriculum and individual differences in predicting selfconcept
• amongst college/university students? Learning and Individual Differences.
• Perry, R. P., & Tunna, K. (1988). Perceived control, Type A/B behavior, and quality of
• instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 102–110.
• Peterson, C., Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1993). Learned helplessness: A theory
• for the age of personal control. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Pianta, R. C. (1998). Applying the concept of resilience in schools: Cautions from a
• developmental systems perspective. School Psychology Review, 27, 407–428.
• Pianta, R. C., Nimetz, S. L., & Bennett, E. (1997). Mother-child relationships, teacherchild
• relationships, and school outcomes in preschool and kindergarten. Early
• Childhood Research Quarterly, 12, 263–280.
• Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation
• in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 667–686.
• Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change:
• The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of
• conceptual change. Review of Educational Research, 63, 167–199.
• Qin, Z., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1995). Cooperative versus competitive
• efforts and problem-solving. Review of Educational Research, 65, 129–144.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Relationships and Student Motivation and Engagement
• 363
• Reeve, J., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Self-determination theory: A dialectical
• framework for understanding sociocultural influences on student motivation. In
• D. McInerney & S. Van Etten (Eds.), Big theories revisited (pp. 31–60). Greenwich,
• CT: Information Age.
• Richardson, P. W., & Watt, H. M. G. (2006). Who chooses teaching and why? Profiling
• characteristics and motivation across three Australian institutions. Asia-Pacific
• Journal of Teacher Education, 34, 27–56.
• Richer, K., Godfrey, J., Partington, G., Harslett, M., & Harrison, B. (1998). Attitudes
• of Aboriginal students to further education: An overview of a questionnaire survey.
• Paper presented at Australian Association for Research in Education Annual
• Conference, Adelaide, Australia.
• Robinson, N. S. (1995). Evaluating the nature of perceived support and its relation to
• perceived self-worth in adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5,
• 253–280.
• Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological
• environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning
• in school: The mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational
• Psychology, 88, 408–422.
• Roth, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). What do adolescents need for healthy development?
• Implication for youth policy. Social Policy Report, Society for Research in
• Child Development, 16, 3–19.
• Rowe, K. J., & Rowe, K. S. (1999). Investigating the relationship between students’
• attentive-inattentive behaviours in the classroom and their literacy progress.
• International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 1–138.
• Royal, M. A., & Rossi, R. (1996). Individual level correlates of sense of community:
• Findings from workplace and school. Journal of Community Psychology, 24,
• 395–416.
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
• intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist,
• 55, 68–78.
• Ryan, R. M., & Grolnick, W. S. (1986). Origins and pawns in the classroom: Selfreport
• and projective assessments of individual differences in children’s perceptions.
• Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 550–558.
• Ryan, R. M., Stiller, J., & Lynch, J. H. (1994). Representations of relationships to
• parents, teachers, and friends as predictors of academic motivation and self-esteem.
• Journal of Early Adolescence, 14, 226–249.
• Sammons, P. (1999). School effectiveness: Coming of age in the twenty-first century.
• Lisse, Netherlands: Swets and Zeitlinger.
• Sammons, P., Hillman, J., & Mortimore, P. (1995). Key characteristics of effective
• schools: A review of school effectiveness research. London: Office of Standards in
• Education and Institute of Education.
• Sarason, S. B. (1993). American psychology and the needs for transcendence and community.
• American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 185–202.
• Schabaracq, M. J., & Cooper, C. L. (2000). The changing nature of work and stress.
• Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15, 227–241.
• Schell, D., Bruning, R., & Colvin, C. (1995). Self-efficacy, attribution, and outcome
• expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement: Grade-level and
• achievement level. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 386–398.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Martin & Dowson
• 364
• Schorr, R. Y. (2000). Impact at the student level: A study of the effects of a teacher
• development intervention on students’ mathematical thinking. Journal of
• Mathematical Behavior, 19, 209–231.
• Schunk, D. (1991). Goal setting and self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective on
• self-regulation. In M. L. Maehr, & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and
• achievement (pp. 85–113). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
• Schunk, D. H., & Miller, S. D. (2002). Self-efficacy and adolescents’ motivation. In
• F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Academic motivation of adolescents (pp. 29–52).
• Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
• Shouse, R. C. (1996). Academic press and sense of community: Conflict, congruence,
• and implications for student achievement. Social Psychology of Education, 1,
• 47–68.
• Slade, M. (2001). Listening to boys. Boys in Schools Bulletin, 4, 10–18.
• Slavin, R. (1983). Cooperative learning. New York: Longman.
• Smithers, A., & Robinson, P. (2003). Factors affecting teachers’ decision to leave the
• profession (Research Report RR430). UK: Department of Education and Skills.
• Stambor, Z. (2006). Stressed out nation. Monitor on Psychology, 37(4), 28–29.
• Stipek, D., Giwin, K. B., Salmon, J. M., & MacGyvers, V. L. (1998). Can a teacher
• intervention improve classroom practices and student motivation in mathematics?
• Journal of Experimental Education, 66, 319–337.
• Stone, N. J. (2001). Designing effective study environments. Journal of Environmental
• Psychology, 21, 179–190.
• Taylor, R. D. (1995). Social contextual influences on family relations. In M. Maehr &
• P. R. Pintrich. (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement (pp. 229–253).
• Greenwich, CT: JAI.
• Teven, J. J., & McCroskey, J. C. (1997). The relationship of perceived teacher caring
• with student learning and teacher evaluation. Communication Education, 46, 1–9.
• Thompson, T. (1994). Self-worth protection: Review and implications for the classroom.
• Educational Review, 46, 259–274.
• Urdan, T. C., & Maehr, M. L. (1995). Beyond a two goal theory of motivation and
• achievement: A case for social goals. Review of Educational Research, 65,
• 213–243.
• Urdan, T. C., Midgley, C., & Anderman, E. M. (1998). The role of classroom goal
• structure in students’ use of self-handicapping strategies. American Educational
• Research Journal, 35, 101–122.
• Valentine, J. C., Cooper, H., Bettencourt, B. A., & DuBois, D. L. (2002). Out-of-school
• activities and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-beliefs. Educational
• Psychologist, 37, 245–256.
• Vinson, T. (2002). Inquiry into the provision of public education. Sydney, Australia:
• Pluto Press.
• Waterman, A. S. (1981). Individualism and interdependence. American Psychologist,
• 36, 762–773.
• Weaver-Hightower, M. (2003). The “boy turn” in research on gender and education.
• Review of Educational Research, 73, 471–498.
• Webster’s Online Dictionary. (2007). http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org
• Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York:
• Springer-Verlag.
• Weiner, B. (1994). Integrating social and personal theories of achievement striving.
• Review of Educational Research, 64, 557–573.
• Downloaded from http://rer.aera.net at UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR on July 17, 2014
• Relationships and Student Motivation and Engagement
• 365
• Weisenfeld, E. (1996). The concept of “We”: A community social psychology myth?
• Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 337–346.
• Weissberg, R. P., Kumpfer, K. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2003). Prevention that works
• for children and youth: An introduction. American Psychologist, 58, 425–432.
• Wentzel, K. R. (1992). Motivation and achievement in adolescence: A multiple goal
• perspective. In D. H. Schunk & J. L. Meece (Eds.), Student perceptions in the classroom
• (pp. 287–306). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Wentzel, K. R. (1994). Relations of social goal pursuit to social acceptance, classroom behaviour,
• and perceived social support. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 173–182.
• Wentzel, K. R. (1999). Social-motivational processes and interpersonal relationships:
• Implications for understanding motivation at school. Journal of Educational
• Psychology, 91, 76–97.
• Wentzel, K. R., McNamara Barry, C., & Caldwell, K. A. (2004). Friendships in middle
• school: Influences on motivation and school adjustment. Journal of Educational
• Psychology, 96, 195–203.
• Wigfield, A. (1994). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation: A developmental
• perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 6, 49–78.
• Wigfield, A., & Tonks, S. (2002). Adolescents’ expectancies for success and achievement
• task values during the middle and high school years. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.),
• Academic motivation of adolescents (pp. 53–82). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
• Zimmerman, B., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Ponz, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic
• attainment: The role of self-efficacy and personal goal setting. American
• Educational Research Journal, 29, 663–676.
• Rahim M. A. (1983a) A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict. Acad. Mgmr 26, 368-376.
• Rahim M. A. (1983b) Rahim Organizationa/ ConJicr Inuenrory-II: Forms A, B, C. Consulting Psychological Press,
• Palo Alto, Calif.
• Rahim M. A. and Bonoma T. V. (1979) Managing organizational conflict: a model for diagnoses and intervention. Psychol.
• Rep. 44, 1323-1344.

Appendix: Questionnaire

Research Topic: Impact of interpersonal conflict on university student’s mindset

Name:

Gender:

• Male
• Female

Age:

Nationality:

Education status:

• Primary School
• High School
• Undergraduate
• Graduate
• Masters
• PHD

Questionnaire